Effects of stepwise changes in subjective effort on joint kinematics during the table tennis forehand topspin stroke
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Abstract
In table tennis forehand topspin strokes, players must regulate output according to rally demands; however, how joint kinematics change over time with subjective effort remains unclear. This study examined phase-dependent changes in pelvic, trunk, and upper-limb joint angles and racket orientation when subjective effort was manipulated in a graded manner. Ten skilled male players performed strokes at 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, and 100% effort, recorded with motion capture. One-way repeated-measures ANOVA tested effects of effort on peak racket-tip speed, inter-event durations, and joint/racket angles at impact; Statistical Parametric Mapping (SPM) evaluated time-series waveforms. Peak racket-tip speed increased stepwise with effort (significant main effect), whereas inter-event durations showed no significant differences. SPM showed frequent effort-dependent differences in shoulder horizontal flexion/extension and pelvic axial rotation, primarily around impact. At impact, significant main effects were observed mainly in the pelvis, trunk, and proximal upper-limb joints, but not in the forearm, wrist, or racket orientation. During follow-through, effort-related differences emerged in thorax lateral flexion, shoulder internal/external rotation, and racket tilt angle. These findings suggest that increased output with higher effort is achieved mainly through proximal kinematic adjustments and late-phase changes while maintaining distal mechanics and racket configuration at impact.
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